Within this wiki assessment I will encompass the term ‘Organisational Culture’ and will begin by deciphering the term by providing academic definitions. I will then move onto defining key characteristics of ‘Organisational Culture’ and align them with examples of organisations that currently use them. A short video will be used as an example to explain ‘Organisational Culture’ and elaborate in depth what it’s like to have great ‘Organisational Culture’. Furthermore, I will move onto describing current research models formulated by Scholars to provide an academic perspective on the term ‘Organisational Culture’. Subsequently this will allow me to determine the effects on organisations that might occur from a managerial perspective as well as an employee one. Thus allowing me to provide a discussion/conclusion to summarise in my own words what I believe on the term ‘Organisational Culture’.
Organisational Culture, what is it?
Overview
The study of organisational culture is a fascinating but complex topic. It is, since organisations are necessarily filled with people who bring with them the culture they have acquired in society. Culture exists in both the external and internal environments of organisations. At all stages in the analysis of organisational environments, the links between culture in society and culture in organisations should be observed to enable appropriate decisions concerning the management of the people who work within the organisation. (Capon and Disbury, 2009 pp. 25-26)
Definitions
“Organizational culture refers to the formal environment and norms that characterize a specific organization, as well as its informal behavioral and the social phenomena that occur among individuals in an organization. The study of organizational culture usually includes exploring intangible characteristics, such as shared understandings, beliefs, and values, and the many ways in which culture influences human behavior” Mercadal, T. (2016).
“Organisational culture can be defined as the values and practices of an organisation in its relations with its full range of stakeholders. For business enterprises, it is common to refer to organisational culture as corporate culture”. (Morrison, 2008, p. 134)
By analysing the definitions given from an academic perspective, you can understand that organisational culture is all the beliefs and values organisations have gathered due to the employees bringing something to the table. Organisational culture is not formulated instantaneously; it is a process which has developed over time with the way a specific organisation wants the business to operate. Some beliefs and values can be detrimental to the business and it takes great management skills to sure goals and objectives for the company are met, otherwise it can affect the way the business performs.
Hofstede’s research (1999:389) found that national cultures differ mainly at the level of basic values, and organisational cultures differ more at the level of practices. The elements of organisational culture are shown below in figure 1.1.
Corporations which differ in organisational culture
Organisational culture into seven characteristics
O’Reilly, C. A., III, Chatman, J. A., & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). Have defined organisational culture into seven characteristics such as; Innovative, Aggressive, outcome-oriented, stable, people-oriented, team-oriented, detail-oriented. (Academy of management journal, 34, 487-516) Innovative cultures: Companies that have innovative cultures are flexible and adaptable, and experiment with new ideas. These companies are characterised by a flat hierarchy in which titles and other status distinctions tend to be downplayed. For example, W. L. Gore & Associates Inc. is a company with innovative products such as GORE-TEX® (the breathable fabric that is windproof and waterproof) Aggressive cultures: Companies with aggressive cultures value competitiveness and outperforming competitors. By emphasising this, they may fall short in the area of corporate social responsibility. For example, Corporation is often identified as a company with an aggressive culture. Outcome oriented cultures: Outcome oriented cultures are those that emphasize achievement, results, and action as important values. For example, Best Buy co. Inc. having a culture emphasizing sales performance, best buy tallies revenue and other relevant figures daily by department. Employees are trained and mentored to sell company products effectively, and they learn how much their department made every day. Stable cultures: Are predictable, rule oriented, and bureaucratic. These organisations aim to coordinate and align individual effort for greatest level of efficiency. When the environment is stable and certain, these cultures may help the organisation be effective by providing stable and constant levels of output. Public sector institutions may be viewed as stable cultures. For example, Kraft foods Inc. is an example of a company with centralised decision and rule orientation that suffered as a result of the culture environment mismatch. People oriented cultures: People oriented cultures value fairness, supportiveness, and respect for individual rights. These organisations truly live the mantra that “people are their greatest asset.” In addition to having fair procedures and management styles, these companies create an atmosphere where work is fun and employees do not feel required to choose between work and other aspects of their lives. In these organisations, there is a greater emphasis on and expectation of treating people with respect and dignity. For example, Starbucks corporation is adapting a people oriented culture. They pay employees above minimum wage, offer health care and tuition reimbursement benefits to its part time as well as full time employees, and has creative perks such as weekly free coffee for associates. Team oriented cultures: Companies with team-oriented cultures are collaborative and emphasize cooperation among employees. For example, Southwest Airlines Company facilitates a team-oriented culture by cross training its employees so that they are capable of helping each other when needed. The company also places emphasis on training intact work teams. Detail oriented cultures: Organisations with detail-oriented cultures are characterised as emphasising precision and paying attention to details. Such a culture gives a competitive advantage to companies in the hospitality industry by helping them differentiate themselves from others. For example, McDonald’s Corporation is another company that specifies in detail how employees should perform their jobs by including photos of exactly how French fries and hamburgers should look when prepared properly.
Video detailing organisational culture within a business
The video explores the ‘corporate culture’ within a multinational technology company ‘Apple’. The video describes a number of key points which outline ‘what it’s like to work for the company’.
A few key components to grasp from the video include:
Pushing people to do the bestthings possible
Reverence for expertise
Belief in the power of small teams to excel
Allowing people to think outside of the box
The attributes to succeed at Apple
Offering employees an opportunity to be a part of something great
Power: Power remains in the hands of only few people and only they are authorized to take decisions. These individuals further delegate responsibilities to the other employees. In such a culture the subordinates have no option but to strictly follow their superior’s instructions. Task culture: Organizations where teams are formed to achieve the targets or solve critical problems follow the task culture. In such organizations individuals with common interests and specializations come together to form a team. In such a culture every team member has to contribute equally and accomplish tasks in the most innovative way. Person culture: In a person culture, individuals are more concerned about their own self rather than the organization. The organization in such a culture takes a back seat and eventually suffers. Employees just come to the office for the sake of and never get attached to it. They are seldom loyal towards the management and never decide in favour of the organisation. Role culture: Role culture is a culture where every employee is delegated roles and responsibilities according to his specialization, educational qualification and interest to extract the best out of him. In such a culture employees decide what best they can do and willingly accept the challenge.
Deal and Kennedy’s organisational cultures:
Deal and Kennedy’s examined hundreds of companies and claim to have identified four generic cultures:
Tough-guy macho culture
Work hard/play hard culture
Your company culture
Process
Tough-guy macho culture: In organisations exhibiting the tough-guy macho culture, it is customary for staff to take high risks and receive rapid feedback on the effectiveness of their actions. Deal and Kennedy indicate that police departments, surgeons, management consultants and the entertainment industry may all exhibit a tough-guy macho culture. The key characteristics of this culture are rapid speed and the short-term nature of actions. Work hard/play hard culture: Organisations for which there is low risk and quick feedback on performance are those with a work hard/play hard culture. Sales with a sense of fun and action are key characteristics of this culture. Typical work hard/play hard organisations include both manufacturing and service companies, such as fast food and computer companies. Quick feedback on performance is easily obtainable in such an organisation, e.g. whether staff have achieved sales or production targets. Your company culture: The your company culture organisation takes high risks and waits a long time for the response to actions and decisions. This is because the investment is huge and long term and the outcome is seen in the long term future. Examples include the manufacture of aircraft as undertaken by Boeing, or the finding and refining of oil as in British Petroleum. Hence there is an enormous amount of detailed planning that has to take place, evidenced in the ritualistic business meetings that occur. Process culture: The process culture is a low-risk and slow-feedback culture. The response to actions and decisions seem to take for ever. This type of culture is typically seen in the Civil Service, public sector organisations, banks and insurance companies. The lengthy feedback time means that employees focus on how something is done, i.e. the process, rather that the reason for doing it or the outcome.(Capon and Disbury, 2009, pp. 62–64)
Organisational culture is the way in which the members of an organisation relate to each other, their work, and the outside world in comparison to other organisations. Your organisational culture can either enable or hinder your strategy. The multi focus mod
el consists of eight dimensions:
Means oriented vs goal oriented
Internally driven vs externally driven
Easy going work discipline vs strict work disciplin
Local vs professional
Open system vs closed system
Employee oriented vs work oriented
Degree of acceptance of leadership style
Degree of identification with your organisation
Means oriented vs goal oriented: It is closely connected with the effectiveness of the organisation. In a means oriented culture the key feature is the way in which work has to be carried out; people identify with the “how”. In a goal-oriented culture employees are primarily out to achieve specific internal goals or results, even if these involve substantial risks; people identify with the “what”. Internally driven vs externally driven: In a very internally driven culture employees perceive their task towards the outside world as totally given, based on the idea that business ethics and honesty matters most and that they know best what is good for the customer and the world at large. In a veryexternally driven culture the only emphasis is on meeting the customer’s requirements; results are most and a pragmatic rather than an ethical attitude prevails. Easy going work discipline vs strict work discipline: This dimension refers to the amount of internal structuring, control and discipline. A very easy going culture reveals loose internal structure, a lack of predictability, and little control and discipline; there is a lot of improvisation and surprises. A very strict work discipline reveals the reverse. People are very cost-conscious, punctual and serious. Local vs Professional: In a local company, employees identify with the boss and/or the unit in which one works. In a professional organisation the identity of an employee is determined by his profession and/or the content of the job. In a very local culture, employees are very short-term directed, they are internally focused and there is strong social control to be like everybody else. In a very professional culture it is the reverse. Open system vs closed system: This dimension relates to the accessibility of an organisation. In avery open culture newcomers are made immediately welcome, one is open both to insiders and outsiders, and it is believed that almost anyone would fit in the organisation. In a very closed organisation it is the reverse. Employee oriented vs work oriented: This aspect of the culture is most related to the management philosophy per se. In very employee-oriented organisations, members of staff feel that personal problems are taken into account and that the organisation takes responsibility for the welfare of its employees, even if this is at the expense of the work. In verywork-oriented organisations, there is heavy pressure to perform the task even if this is at the expense of employees. Degree of acceptance of leadership style: This dimension tells us to which degree the leadership style of respondents’ direct boss is being in line with respondents’ preferences. The fact that people, depending on the project they are working for, may have different bosses doesn’t play a role at the level of culture. Culture measures central tendencies. Degree of identification with your organisation: This dimension shows to which degree respondents identify with the organisation in its totality. People are able to simultaneously identify with different aspects of a company. Thus, it is possible that employees identify at the same time strongly with the internal goals of the company, with the client, with one’s own group and/or with one’s direct boss and with the whole organisation. It is also possible that employees don’t feel strongly connected with any of these aspects.
Effects of organisational culture within a business?
Managements opinion on organisational culture
Moskal (1991) conducted a survey of 845 line managers and identified that only 29 percent of first-level supervisors thought that their organisation encouraged their employees to express opinions openly. Within organisational culture, managers have a strong fear of negative feedback and especially from subordinates. When managers do receive feedback, they may to ignore the message, dismiss it as inaccurate, or attack the credibility of the source. (Ilgen, Fisher, & Taylor, 1979). Argyris and Schon (1978) suggest that this fear of feedback may be especially strong among managers. They argue that many managers feel a strong need to avoid embarrassment, threat, and feelings of vulnerability or incompetence. Hence, they will tend to avoid any information that may suggest weakness or that may raise questions about current course of action. It has been shown that when negative feedback comes from below, rather than from above, it is seen as less accurate and legitimate (Ligen et al., 1979) and as more threatening to one’s power and credibility (Korsgaard , Roberson , & Rymph 1998)
Employees opinion on organisational culture
Redding (1985) argued that many organisations implicitly convey to employees that they should not ‘rock the boat’ by challenging corporate policies or managerial prerogatives. Ryan and Oestreich (1991) conducted interviews with 260 employees from 22 organisations throughout the united states and found that more than 70 percent indicated that they felt afraid to speak up about issues or problems that they encountered at work. The two most common reasons that respondents gave for not raising these issues were that they feared there would be negative repercussions for speaking up and they did not believe that speaking up would a significant difference. Research has shown that in order for employees to express their concerns, they must believe that doing so will be both effective and not too personally costly (Ashford et al., 1998; Miceli and Near, 1992; Withey & Cooper, 1989).
Conclusion
Is organisational culture: New? A trend? A management practice?
To conclude the research on ‘Organisational culture’, it is definitely not a new concept as it has been discussed by scholars centuries ago but in the modern era it is a trend in management. The trend within organisations is to create the ‘perfect’ organisational culture for both employees and management to be excited about, however in retrospect the term ‘perfect’ does not exist as every organisation differs to one another. ‘Organisational Culture’ is deemed as a management practice and the target for managers is to create an ideal organisational culture in line with the goals and objectives as an organisation. Management need to understand the right practices to embed within their company’s ‘Organisational Culture’ to put themselves ahead of competition and to maintain an iconic status to attract future employees. By analysing research models, managers have a starting point to determine how they can correlate their current organisational culture to scholar’s framework and define the type of organisational culture they can propose to higher management to go forward with in the future.
In the current era there is a vast amount of opportunity for individuals to ‘job hunt’ elsewhere with the internet it accessible for individuals to find a new employer, subsequently management need to focus on employee retention. Employee retention is fundamental within organisations and it is the duty for management to create a culture where it focuses on; employee growth, satisfaction, performance etc. Employees need to have a workplace which promotes individuals to voice their opinion and for management to be able to take constructive criticism if an organisation is to move in the right direction.
References
- Argyris, C., & Schon, D. 1978. Organisational learning. Reading, MA: Addison. Wesley.
- Ashford, S. J., & Cummings, L. L. 1983. Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies of creating information. Organisational Behaviour and Human Performance, 32: 370-398
- Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (eds) Internationalization of the firm (2nd edn). London: Thomson. Pp. 381-93
- Capon, C. and Disbury, A. (2009) Understanding organisational context: Inside and outside organisations. 2nd edn. Harlow: Financial Times/ Prentice Hall.
- Korsgaard, M., Roberson, L., & Rymph, R. D. 1998. What motivates fairness: The role of subordinates’ assertive behaviour in managers’ interactional fairness. Journal of Psychology, 83: 731-744
- Ilgen, D.R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M.S. 1979. Consequences of individual feedback on behaviour in organisations. Journal of Psychology, 64: 349-371.
- Mercidial T. Organisational culture. Salem Press Encyclopedia (serial online). January 2016; Available from: Research Starters. Ipswich, MA. Accessed January 16, 2017
- Miceli, M. P., & Near, J. P. 1992. Blowing the whistle. New York: Lexington Books
- Morrison, J. (2008) International business: Challenges in a changing world. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Moskal, B.S. 1991. Is industry ready for adult relationships? Industry Week, January 21: 18-25.
- O’Reilly, C. A., III, Chatman, J. A., & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 487–516.
- Redding, W. C. 1985. Rocking boats, blowing whistles, and teaching speech communication. Communication Education, 34: 245-258
- Ryan, K. D., & Oestrich, D. K. 1991. Driving fear out of the workplace: How to overcome the invisible barriers to quality, productivity, and innovation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Withey, M. J. & Cooper, W. H. 1989. Predicting exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34: 521-539
Table of Contents
Introduction
Within this wiki assessment I will encompass the term ‘Organisational Culture’ and will begin by deciphering the term by providing academic definitions. I will then move onto defining key characteristics of ‘Organisational Culture’ and align them with examples of organisations that currently use them. A short video will be used as an example to explain ‘Organisational Culture’ and elaborate in depth what it’s like to have great ‘Organisational Culture’. Furthermore, I will move onto describing current research models formulated by Scholars to provide an academic perspective on the term ‘Organisational Culture’. Subsequently this will allow me to determine the effects on organisations that might occur from a managerial perspective as well as an employee one. Thus allowing me to provide a discussion/conclusion to summarise in my own words what I believe on the term ‘Organisational Culture’.Organisational Culture, what is it?
Overview
The study of organisational culture is a fascinating but complex topic. It isDefinitions
“Organizational culture refers to the formal environment and norms that characterize a specific organization, as well as its informal behavioral and the social phenomena that occur among individuals in an organization. The study of organizational culture usually includes exploring intangible characteristics, such as shared understandings, beliefs, and values, and the many ways in which culture influences human behavior” Mercadal, T. (2016).“Organisational culture can be defined as the values and practices of an organisation in its relations with its full range of stakeholders. For business enterprises, it is common to refer to organisational culture as corporate culture”. (Morrison, 2008, p. 134)
By analysing the definitions given from an academic perspective, you can understand that organisational culture is all the beliefs and values organisations have gathered due to the employees bringing something to the table. Organisational culture is not formulated instantaneously; it is a process which has developed over time with the way a specific organisation wants the business to operate. Some beliefs and values can be detrimental to the business and it takes great management skills to
Hofstede’s research (1999:389) found that national cultures differ mainly at the level of basic values, and organisational cultures differ more at the level of practices. The elements of organisational culture are shown below in figure 1.1.
Corporations which differ in organisational culture
Organisational culture into seven characteristics
O’Reilly, C. A., III, Chatman, J. A., & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). Have defined organisational culture into seven characteristics such as; Innovative, Aggressive, outcome-oriented, stable, people-oriented, team-oriented, detail-oriented. (Academy of management journal, 34, 487-516)Innovative cultures:
Companies that have innovative cultures are flexible and adaptable, and experiment with new ideas. These companies are characterised by a flat hierarchy in which titles and other status distinctions tend to be downplayed. For example, W. L. Gore & Associates Inc. is a company with innovative products such as GORE-TEX® (the breathable fabric that is windproof and waterproof)
Aggressive cultures:
Companies with aggressive cultures value competitiveness and outperforming competitors. By emphasising this, they may fall short in the area of corporate social responsibility. For example,
Outcome oriented cultures:
Outcome oriented cultures are those that emphasize achievement, results, and action as important values. For example, Best Buy co. Inc. having a culture emphasizing sales performance, best buy tallies revenue and other relevant figures daily by department. Employees are trained and mentored to sell company products effectively, and they learn how much
Stable cultures:
Are predictable, rule oriented, and bureaucratic. These organisations aim to coordinate and align individual effort for greatest level of efficiency. When the environment is stable and certain, these cultures may help the organisation be effective by providing stable and constant levels of output. Public sector institutions may be viewed as stable cultures. For example, Kraft foods Inc. is an example of a company with centralised decision
People oriented cultures:
People oriented cultures value fairness, supportiveness, and respect for individual rights. These organisations truly live the mantra that “people are their greatest asset.” In addition to having fair procedures and management styles, these companies create an atmosphere where work is fun and employees do not feel required to choose between work and other aspects of their lives. In these organisations, there is a greater emphasis on and expectation of treating people with respect and dignity. For example, Starbucks corporation is adapting a people oriented culture. They pay employees above minimum wage, offer health care and tuition reimbursement benefits to its part time as well as full time employees, and has creative perks such as weekly free coffee for associates.
Team oriented cultures:
Companies with team-oriented cultures are collaborative and emphasize cooperation among employees. For example, Southwest Airlines Company facilitates a team-oriented culture by cross training its employees so that they are capable of helping each other when needed. The company also places emphasis on training intact work teams.
Detail oriented cultures:
Organisations with detail-oriented cultures are characterised as emphasising precision and paying attention to details. Such a culture gives a competitive advantage to companies in the hospitality industry by helping them differentiate themselves from others. For example, McDonald’s Corporation is another company that specifies in detail how employees should perform their jobs by including photos of exactly how French fries and hamburgers should look when prepared properly.
Video detailing organisational culture within a business
The video explores the ‘corporate culture’ within a multinational technology company ‘Apple’. The video describes a number of key points which outline ‘what it’s like to work for the company’.
A few key components to grasp from the video include:
Research and models of organisational culture
Charles Handy – **four types of organisational culture**:
- Power
- Task culture
- Person culture
- Role culture
Power: Power remains in the hands of only few people and only they are authorized to take decisions. These individuals further delegate responsibilities to the other employees. In such a culture the subordinates have no option but to strictly follow their superior’s instructions.Task culture: Organizations where teams are formed to achieve the targets or solve critical problems follow the task culture. In such organizations individuals with common interests and specializations come together to form a team. In such a culture every team member has to contribute equally and accomplish tasks in the most innovative way.
Person culture: In a person culture, individuals are more concerned about their own self rather than the organization. The organization in such a culture takes a back seat and eventually suffers. Employees just come to the office for the sake of
Role culture: Role culture is a culture where every employee is delegated roles and responsibilities according to his specialization, educational qualification and interest to extract the best out of him. In such a culture employees decide what best they can do and willingly accept the challenge.
Deal and Kennedy’s organisational cultures:
Deal and Kennedy’s examined hundreds of companies and claim to have identified four generic cultures:Tough-guy macho culture: In organisations exhibiting the tough-guy macho culture, it is customary for staff to take high risks and receive rapid feedback on the effectiveness of their actions. Deal and Kennedy indicate that police departments, surgeons, management consultants and the entertainment industry may all exhibit a tough-guy macho culture. The key characteristics of this culture are rapid speed and the short-term nature of actions.
Work hard/play hard culture: Organisations for which there is low risk and quick feedback on performance are those with a work hard/play hard culture. Sales with a sense of fun and action are key characteristics of this culture. Typical work hard/play hard organisations include both manufacturing and service companies, such as fast food and computer companies. Quick feedback on performance is easily obtainable in such an organisation, e.g. whether staff have achieved sales or production targets.
Process culture: The process culture is a low-risk and slow-feedback culture. The response to actions and decisions seem to take for ever. This type of culture is typically seen in the Civil Service, public sector organisations, banks and insurance companies. The lengthy feedback time means that employees focus on how something is done, i.e. the process, rather that the reason for doing it or the outcome.(Capon and Disbury, 2009, pp. 62–64)
Geert Hofstede – **Multi focus model on organisational culture**:
Organisational culture is the way in which the members of an organisation relate to each other, their work, and the outside world in comparison to other organisations. Your organisational culture can either enable or hinder your strategy. The multi focus model consists of eight dimensions:
- Means oriented vs goal oriented
- Internally driven vs externally driven
- Easy going work discipline vs strict work disciplin
- Local vs professional
- Open system vs closed system
- Employee oriented vs work oriented
- Degree of acceptance of leadership style
- Degree of identification with your organisation
Means oriented vs goal oriented: It is closely connected with the effectiveness of the organisation. In a means oriented culture the key feature is the way in which work has to be carried out; people identify with the “how”. In a goal-oriented culture employees are primarily out to achieve specific internal goals or results, even if these involve substantial risks; people identify with the “what”.Internally driven vs externally driven: In a very internally driven culture employees perceive their task towards the outside world as totally given, based on the idea that business ethics and honesty matters most and that they know best what is good for the customer and the world at large. In a veryexternally driven culture the only emphasis is on meeting the customer’s requirements; results are most
Easy going work discipline vs strict work discipline: This dimension refers to the amount of internal structuring, control and discipline. A very easy going culture reveals loose internal structure, a lack of predictability, and little control and discipline; there is a lot of improvisation and surprises. A very strict work discipline reveals the reverse. People are very cost-conscious, punctual and serious.
Local vs Professional: In a local company, employees identify with the boss and/or the unit in which one works. In a professional organisation the identity of an employee is determined by his profession and/or the content of the job. In a very local culture, employees are very short-term directed, they are internally focused and there is strong social control to be like everybody else. In a very professional culture it is the reverse.
Open system vs closed system: This dimension relates to the accessibility of an organisation. In avery open culture newcomers are made immediately welcome, one is open both to insiders and outsiders, and it is believed that almost anyone would fit in the organisation. In a very closed organisation it is the reverse.
Employee oriented vs work oriented: This aspect of the culture is most related to the management philosophy per se. In very employee-oriented organisations, members of staff feel that personal problems are taken into account and that the organisation takes responsibility for the welfare of its employees, even if this is at the expense of the work. In verywork-oriented organisations, there is heavy pressure to perform the task even if this is at the expense of employees.
Degree of acceptance of leadership style: This dimension tells us to which degree the leadership style of respondents’ direct boss is being in line with respondents’ preferences. The fact that people, depending on the project they are working for, may have different bosses doesn’t play a role at the level of culture. Culture measures central tendencies.
Degree of identification with your organisation: This dimension shows to which degree respondents identify with the organisation in its totality. People are able to simultaneously identify with different aspects of a company. Thus, it is possible that employees identify at the same time strongly with the internal goals of the company, with the client, with one’s own group and/or with one’s direct boss and with the whole organisation. It is also possible that employees don’t feel strongly connected with any of these aspects.
Effects of organisational culture within a business?
Managements opinion on organisational culture
Moskal (1991) conducted a survey of 845 line managers and identified that only 29 percent of first-level supervisors thought that their organisation encouraged their employees to express opinions openly. Within organisational culture, managers have a strong fear of negative feedback and especially from subordinates. When managers do receive feedback, they mayEmployees opinion on organisational culture
Redding (1985) argued that many organisations implicitly convey to employees that they should not ‘rock the boat’ by challenging corporate policies or managerial prerogatives. Ryan and Oestreich (1991) conducted interviews with 260 employees from 22 organisations throughout the united states and found that more than 70 percent indicated that they felt afraid to speak up about issues or problems that they encountered at work. The two most common reasons that respondents gave for not raising these issues were that they feared there would be negative repercussions for speaking up and they did not believe that speaking up would
Conclusion
Is organisational culture: New? A trend? A management practice?To conclude the research on ‘Organisational culture’, it is definitely not a new concept as it has been discussed by scholars centuries ago but in the modern era it is a trend in management. The trend within organisations is to create the ‘perfect’ organisational culture for both employees and management to be excited about, however in retrospect the term ‘perfect’ does not exist as every organisation differs to one another. ‘Organisational Culture’ is deemed as a management practice and the target for managers is to create an ideal organisational culture in line with the goals and objectives as an organisation. Management need to understand the right practices to embed within their company’s ‘Organisational Culture’ to put themselves ahead of competition and to maintain an iconic status to attract future employees. By analysing research models, managers have a starting point to determine how they can correlate their current organisational culture to scholar’s framework and define the type of organisational culture they can propose to higher management to go forward with in the future.
In the current era there is a vast amount of opportunity for individuals to ‘job hunt’ elsewhere with the internet
References
- Argyris, C., & Schon, D. 1978. Organisational learning. Reading, MA: Addison. Wesley.- Ashford, S. J., & Cummings, L. L. 1983. Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies of creating information. Organisational Behaviour and Human Performance, 32: 370-398
- Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (eds) Internationalization of the firm (2nd edn). London: Thomson. Pp. 381-93
- Capon, C. and Disbury, A. (2009) Understanding organisational context: Inside and outside organisations. 2nd edn. Harlow: Financial Times/ Prentice Hall.
- Korsgaard, M., Roberson, L., & Rymph, R. D. 1998. What motivates fairness: The role of subordinates’ assertive behaviour in managers’ interactional fairness. Journal of
- Ilgen, D.R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M.S. 1979. Consequences of individual feedback on behaviour in organisations. Journal of
- Mercidial T. Organisational culture. Salem Press Encyclopedia (serial online). January 2016; Available from: Research Starters. Ipswich, MA. Accessed January 16, 2017
- Miceli, M. P., & Near, J. P. 1992. Blowing the whistle. New York: Lexington Books
- Morrison, J. (2008) International business: Challenges in a changing world. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Moskal, B.S. 1991. Is industry ready for adult relationships? Industry Week, January 21: 18-25.
- O’Reilly, C. A., III, Chatman, J. A., & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 487–516.
- Redding, W. C. 1985. Rocking boats, blowing whistles, and teaching speech communication. Communication Education, 34: 245-258
- Ryan, K. D., & Oestrich, D. K. 1991. Driving fear out of the workplace: How to overcome the invisible barriers to quality, productivity, and innovation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Withey, M. J. & Cooper, W. H. 1989. Predicting exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34: 521-539